By: Alexander Taylor Clayton
Originally Published: August 9th, 2022
Abstract:
The purpose of this paper is to analyze the historic and modern relations of Japan and the United States in the Pacific Ocean with regards to fisheries, overfishing, and overall oceanic depletion and offer solutions moving forward. The research is designed in such a way as to first address the issue of overfishing and oceanic depletion, followed by a historical to modern review of Japan and its history and relationship with the Pacific Ocean and the issue of overfishing. It then proceeds to do the same for the United States, before ending in solutions that both nations can implement moving forward to help tackle the issue.
Table of Contents
Title Page 1
Abstract 2
Japan, the United States, and Overfishing in the Pacific 4
Literature Review: A History and Exploration 7
Conclusion/Solutions 13
Citations/Reference List 17
Japan, the United States, and Overfishing in the Pacific
In this paper, I will tackle the problem of human activity and its influence on our oceans, specifically the problem of overfishing and overall oceanic depletion. A problem, like many others when it comes to our precious planet, wrought by an overwhelming notion of anthropocentrism, or in other words, that humans are the only species that matters, and the rest of the planet is to serve and/or die on our whims (Padwe, 2013). Part of my life goals and reasoning for entering the field of anthropology and focusing on environmental sustainability was to help find ways to combat the very idea of anthropocentrism. We are all part of a larger ecosystem, planet Earth, and we all should act accordingly.
To narrow my topic a bit further, for the planet is vast and so are our oceans, the location of my focus is specifically on the Pacific Ocean. Further, comparing and contrasting the effects of the two nations that border this beautifully big body of water, Japan (Nippon) and the United States of America (Amerika), and how they both approach this issue. Two different countries, with two different styles of government, society, fishing, and environmental practices and laws, yet remarkably similar and intertwined in many respects. Ultimately, my research question is thus: How has anthropocentrism affected fishing and ocean populations and what are some solutions?
The issue of overfishing is nothing new to humanity, as pointed out by the Yale University Press in an article back in 2017:
Overfishing is, of course, nothing new. The Ancient Egyptians, who relied heavily on dried fish as rations for commoners and nobles alike, and to build the pyramids, suffered from shortages of catfish and mullet. Roman markets sold rare large fish at premium prices, so most people relied on smaller species, which also became garum, the ubiquitous fish sauce that had as many vintages as wine. Both Egyptians and Romans, as well as the Chinese, turned to fish farming to guard against poor catches as early as 2500 BC. But they faced nothing like the devastation of the oceans that we are experiencing today. (Yale University Press, 2017)
This is especially true, as ancient Romans and Chinese did not have giant commercial fishing trawlers to scoop up large swaths of fish and sea animals alike in droves. Industrialization and globalization, for all their many benefits, has hit our oceans hard. In fact, studies have shown that lower trophic level species that have been overfished have had dramatic disastrous effects on many predator species, causing massive biomass declines and entire ecosystems to shrink or even collapse (Pikitch, 2012). Today, entire global fleets of large freezer trawlers crawl the oceans, taking as much as they can. Some attempt “optimal” levels of fishing to remain “sustainable”, but often times many fisheries do not understand the true multivariate problem at hand, and still their fisheries remain unsustainable and dwindling.
On the one side of the Pacific is Japan, which has a long history of small-scale coastal fisheries dating back to the early 1700s (Environmental Defense Fund, 2015). Japan has long been a “fish-centric” culture, with an expansive and large fishing industry that delivers not just nationally, but worldwide (Environmental Defense Fund, 2015). Japan has also not limited itself to fishing, but also whaling and dolphin hunting, a hugely controversial and largely condemned act on the global stage, which it continues to still do to this day. In fact, on December 26th, 2018, Japan withdrew from the International Whaling Commission (IWC) that regulates whaling practices in order to continue commercial hunting whales at their own convenience (Whale & Dolphin Conservation USA, 2022). Many Japanese whaling ships will often do this under the guise of “scientific research”.
Now while this practice of whaling and dolphin hunting is deplorable to anyone with decent sensibilities in this personal anthropologist’s opinion, it should be noted that the Japanese Government has taken steps to at least address their unsustainable fishing practices and fisheries. According to the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD, 2021), in 2018, Japan produced 4.2 million tonnes of fish (including mollusks and crustaceans), valued at USD 13775.7 million, with 38% coming from aquaculture and 62% from fisheries (OECD, 2021). In that very same year, reform was taking place on fisheries policies and the Fishery Act of their government was amended, pushing towards more sustainable practices. Their Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries would set a “resource management target”, essentially stating what the “total allowable catch” (TAC) was to be maintained at in order to restore the “maximum sustainable level” (MSY) based on an assessment of current fishing stocks (OECD, 2021). Preservation and recovery of these fisheries were at the forefront of these amendments, so while Japan has a long way to go, they are at least doing something.
Now on the other side of the Pacific, we have the United States of America (USA). The USA, according to the 2017 Report to Congress on the Status of U.S. Fisheries by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the number of stocks listed as overfished by the NOAA Fisheries was at an all-time low. Many of the fisheries under the guidance of the NOAA have moved towards sustainable management practices in the last decade and have succeeded in reaching their goals, regardless of which ocean you look at, the Pacific or the Atlantic. Now while this is excellent and admirable news, the USA is only one country of many around the world and overfishing in the Pacific is still very much a problem in the “East”.
As this report develops, I will take a look at both nations more in-depth, their history of fishing in the Pacific, their cultural practices towards seafood and fishing in general, and where they are at now. I also intend to offer suggestions or solutions to these problems that both governments can implement to help further sustainability in this industry.
Literature Review: A History and Exploration
Both historically and culturally, Japan is a fishing nation, and has been for the duration of its existence and will, in all likelihood, continue to be so. Fish serves as a primary part of a Japanese diet, with Japan being the world’s largest consumer of fish, followed by the United States and China (Peck, N., 2016). In fact, you can find oceanic motifs all over Japan, from temples and shrines to business lobbies. Take the Japanese Koi fish for example, also known as Nishikigoi. One of the most iconic fish in Japan, this Koi can be found all over, in shrines and Japanese gardens, as well as ponds in private homes. The Koi fish is featured heavily in Japanese culture, from modern day to mythology, representing vitality, longevity, perseverance, nature, and even wealth. There is even a national holiday known as Children’s Day, where families celebrate the healthy growth of their children, and will often display koi shaped windsocks to fly in the wind to symbolize the health and vitality and strength of their children (50th Anniversary All Japan Nishikigoi Show, 2021; Japan Wonder Travel Blog, 2022). There was even the 12th Emperor of Japan, Emperor Keiko, who was known for his love and respect of the Koi fish and would often wear robes and have accoutrement with Koi motifs and depictions all over (Kodama, T., 2020). One can’t help but wonder how these traditions and symbolism would change in the coming decades, and what those ramifications might come to mean to the psyche of the Japanese people as a whole, as climate change and oceanic depletion sunders this iconic and beloved fish, a symbol of life and longevity and perseverance in nature, extinct.
Japan’s most populated areas are coastal, which puts a high demand on marine resources be local and national governments. With Japan being situated on a continental shelf, the conditions of the area provide for a highly diverse ecosystem that is ripe for coastal nurseries. According to a report by the European Union on Fisheries in Japan, the area that surrounds Japan is “some of the world’s richest fishing grounds”, accounting for almost 23% of global fish production (Popescu, I., & Ogushi, T., 2013). More than 3300 fish species are found in these waters wit 24 species acting as Japan’s majority of total catch volume, as compared to places such as Norway or Iceland, whose primary catch volume consists of no more than 5 and 6 species respectively (Popescu, I., & Ogushi, T., 2013).
By the 1930s, Japan had a fishing fleet twice the size of any other nation, quickly depleting its own stores of fishing stock, and were forced to expand further outwards into the Pacific (Bestor, V., & Bestor, T., 2014). However, this very same fishing fleet was destroyed at the end of WWII, combined with other damages to food infrastructure, left the nation on the brink of starvation (Bestor, V., & Bestor, T., 2014). Despite this setback, Japan’s long history of fishing management, with the remaining infrastructure that was still intact, allowed it to revive its fishing industry with relative ease, with whaling activities resuming in 1946, merely a year after WWII, and it was during this revival era that many new laws and management practices around its fisheries were enacted. This included the establishment of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries (MAFF). As many historians are aware, much like the United States in the 1950s, Japan also experienced an economic boom, and by the 60s were the dominant global power in the global fishing industry, with large factory ships reaching every part of the globe, and naturally with this, an enormous rise in consumption of fish (Bestor, V., & Bestor, T., 2014).
However, it would not be until 1999 that a new Act would be passed centered around sustainable aquaculture practices in Japan, titled Sustainable Aquaculture Production Assurance Act (Act No. 51 of 1999). Essentially the act serves as a means of “improvement of an aquaculture area” and is dedicated to restoring and maintaining the aquaculture area at a sustainable rate the growth of aquatic animals and plants. This would allow the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries to establish the TAC (total allowable catch) and the MSY (maximum sustainable level) for fisheries subject to Japan, as well as mandating the reporting of any and all diseases that occur as a way of combating illness in their fishing stocks, among other practices, with supplemental provisions being added as recent as 2018 (Ministry of Justice, Japan, 2022). A special ending note that warrants attention is the “Triple Disaster” that struck Japan in 2011; the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami, and subsequent Fukushima Nuclear Accident, resulting in extensive damage to the Japan’s fisheries infrastructure, with more than 90% of fishing ports, fishing vessels, fisheries, and aquaculture facilities being damaged (Popescu, I., & Ogushi, T., 2013).
According to a 2020 report by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, as of 2018, global fish production is estimated to have reached 179 million tonnes, valued at 401 billion USD, with 35% coming from China alone and another 34% coming from the remaining Asia area. Comparatively, the Americas combined reach only 17%. Aquaculture accounted for 46% of total production, 52% of fish specifically. The remaining percent is accounted for by capture fisheries in marine waters, with a small percentage taking place in inland waters (FOA, 2020). With the Sustainable Aquaculture Production Assurance Act in 1999 and Japan’s shift towards more sustainable practices (with the exception of whaling and dolphin hunting), coupled with China’s economic boom in the 90s and subsequent population growth, in is around this exact time that China overtook Japan as the primary fishing nation, at least as far as tonnage is concerned.
Japan, who in the 80s once produced 10.59 million tonnes, had significantly dropped to 4.02 million in the 2000s, and as of 2018, accounted for 3.10 million, it’s lowest figure in recent times. In the exact opposite direction, China skyrockets from 3.82 in the 80s, to almost 10 in the 90s, hitting as high as 14.39 in 2015, and as of 2018, sat at 12.68 million tonnes. The United States, remarkably, has sat at a balance ranging from 4.53 to 5.15, floating between these two numbers for the entirely of this same passage of time, from the 80s to 2018, where it currently sits at 4.72 million tonnes. However, when you combine these three nations who dominate the Pacific when it comes to the fishing industry, extrapolating from Table 2, page 13 of the report, as of 2018, China accounted for 15% of total global production, with the USA accounting for 6% and Japan at 4%., totaling 25% of global production, with a majority of that percentage located in the Pacific Ocean alone. Since the 80s, the world has, at a rough estimate produced 559.92 million tonnes of fish and related aquaculture products, with China, the USA, and Japan producing 148.86 tonnes of that total, roughly a little more than 1/5 of total production during a span of nearly 40 years (FOA, 2020).
On the other side of the Pacific, the United States, having equally contributed to the severe oceanic depletion, took a very hard stance on overfishing in 1996 with the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (Rosenberg, A. & et. al., 2006). This act was designed to end overfishing in the United States and create avenues for rebuilding depleted fishery resources. It established timelines for rebuilding, requirements for management plans, and required accountability, in order to actually rebuild and create sustainable levels in a “timely manner”. According to a report by the NOAA in 2017, 43 overfished stocks in the USA have been officially rebuilt since 2000 (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2017). In conjunction with this, a NOAA 2022 Quarter 2 report states that of 175 stocks in the USA, only 14 remain subject to overfished, with 27 declared officially overfished, coming to a total of 41 stocks out of 175 that still need work (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2022).
The United States, while not a “fishing nation” like Japan, certainly has had no qualms about exporting for profit where it could, and fish certainly was a regular staple in many highly populated coastal cities. As of 2020, the average American consumes 15.5 pound of fish annually, which is only expected to increase (Warfield, S., 2020). In 2020, there was an estimated population of 329.5 million people in the US (United States Census Bureau, 2022). A little simple arithmetic displayed that as a 5.172 billion pounds of fish, which converted for mental ease and previous metrics, is 2.345 million tonnes of fish annually. Historically, the 1920s and 30s saw steam-powered trawlers dominating American fisheries, and a post-war economic boom saw American fishing fleets expanding significantly in the 50s and 60s, just like Japan (Blackford, M. 2008). It wasn’t until the global collapse of fishing stocks in the 80s and 90s did countries, with the exception of China (and Peru), turn around on their stance of fishing and the global fishing population. It had become apparent to nearly all that the oceans were not as infinitely abundant as they had once seemed in the past.
Ethically, what we have seen here over the last century has been what can only be called a globally blanket disregard for fish and other aquatic species populations. The belief that the oceans were infinitely abundant was shown all over, and only with the global collapse of fishing stocks in the 80s and 90s did humanity change its outlook on its relationship with fishing populations and the oceans as a whole. It was a hallmark example of anthropocentrism run rampant on a global stage. It wasn’t until humans as a whole were forced to face a problem that did humans considered their impact on this aspect of our global environment. Even still, the orientation of the issue is simply that of “how to we feed our species sustainably while maintaining sustainable levels of fishing stocks” rather than any real consideration of the fish and aquatic species themselves, with the exception of whaling and dolphin hunting, which the global stage of humanity largely condemns. In fairness to humanity, once the problem was seen in full view, it largely turned around on its heel and embraced sustainable management practices with vigor, in this particular instance, Japan and the United States in the Pacific (as that is our focus). China, as an exception, when the exact opposite direction, showing little regard for this grave issue, or at least as far as the numbers go (further investigation culturally and historically is required). However, the bitter truth is that even if humanity as a whole were able to solve its overfishing issue overnight, most of the ocean’s species and populations would still struggle greatly in the coming years due to the severe impacts of climate change. Combined, the oceanic situation looks very bleak, indeed.
The literature on the subject has consistently shown dramatically high levels of fishing and subsequent overfishing that increased steadily from the late 1800s to a brief dip during the period of WWII, to a skyrocket explosion during the 50s, 60s, and 70s, leading to inevitable global collapse in the 80s and 90s, with many countries, including the United States and Japan, reevaluating their positions on this issue and taking firm and decisive action to repair the damage they had caused. Reports covering the implementation and effects of the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1996 (United States) and the Sustainable Aquaculture Production Assurance Act of 1999 (Japan) showed effective change in overall fishery practices in these two countries and in the Pacific Ocean. Cultural commentaries showed that the United States remarkably picked up on the issue in the 70s and began enacting change then with The Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1976, the precursor to the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act showing “comparably low” tonnages of fish production from the 80s onwards, with Japan following suit in the 90s (Brown, H. C., 2020). Japan, historically, as always been a “fishing nation”, but like many environmental issues, approached them seriously when confronted with the issue (with the well-noted exception of whaling and dolphin hunting). The United States took the issue very seriously from the start, a far cry from other major environmental issues raised during this time. Much of the literature is strong, founded in reports from international government agencies, such as the United Nations, to national agencies like the NOAA and the Japanese and United States governments themselves, as well as several academically published papers in several respected journals and university presses, with period media commentary pieces for reference and perspective. However, a primary weakness of the current literature is a stronger look required at oceanic health overall and the impacts of these initiatives on overall oceanic health, rather than just fishing stock numbers and health.
Conclusion/Solutions
The science on the issues of oceanic depletion is resoundingly clear. Fish are being farmed and harvested at unsustainable levels all over the globe. Climate change is acidifying our oceans and seas at a colossal rate, and even if legislature was enacted all over for even more aggressive, progressive reforms, it would still not be enough. However, all is not lost. The last few decades have seen a rise in research towards what is known as “integrated multi-trophic aquaculture” (IMTA) (Correia, M., et. al., 2020). IMTA is a revolutionary way of cultivating our food from aquaculture whilst simultaneously propagating the oceans with diverse life and reducing the carbon and nitrogen build up in our oceans, reducing overall acidification. To quote previous research:
Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture, or IMTA, is similar to polyculture, where two or more organisms are farmed together. In IMTA, multiple aquatic species from different trophic levels are farmed in an integrated fashion to improve efficiency, reduce waste, and provide ecosystem services, such as bio-remediation. Species at the lower trophic level (usually plants or invertebrates) use waste products such as feces and uneaten feed from the higher trophic species (typically finfish), as nutrients. The lower trophic species can then be harvested in addition to the fish to give the farmer more revenue, or even to be fed back to the fish. (University of Maine, 2022)
By utilizing IMTA, ocean farmers can turn the already operating fish farms and stocks each into a new, biodiverse ecosystem that can quickly exponentially propagate life in the surrounding areas, with each trophic level species essentially feeding into each other, allowing for not only larger and healthier fish, but clams, mussels, mollusks, lobsters, and other shellfish, as well as seaweed, a prime dish item in Japanese cuisine that is also finding purchase in restaurants and soon to be households all over the world. Shellfish and seaweed both are natural carbon and nitrogen filters, as they utilize this element for the formation of their shells and as food. In fact, “a single oyster can filter upward of 50 gallons of water a day, which adds up exponentially when accompanied by an entire reef” (Neimanis, D., 2020; Chesapeake Bay Foundation, 2007).
Considering the heavy seafood diet of Japan, IMTA is a natural way to move forward with this serious issue, allowing the Japanese culture to continue its oceanic ways as it always has in a more sustainable and environmentally regenerative way. Such a shift would create new jobs, “blue” jobs, for many of the people of Japan and the United States alike. Already in North America along the Atlantic Coast from Newfoundland, Canada to the far reaches of the United States eastern seaboard, an entire network known as GreenWave has been created to help establish a network of regenerative ocean farmers with seaweed and shellfish, as well as helping establish new farmers who want to “get in on” the industry (GreenWave, 2022). This is an innovation that can be adapted all over the world, and especially in the Pacific Ocean. Everyone all over, from Japan, to the US, to China, to the Philippines, to the coasts of Africa, to Brazil, to Europe, this process can be adapted to suit the needs of the local environment, natural ocean life and species, and palates of local peoples. Japan can utilize this new way of developing aquaculture to not only sustain current fish stocks but help grow and even introduce new sea vegetables to which there are an enormous about that we are still discovering, whilst giving back to the oceans that have always been a second home to the peoples of Japan (Turan, G., & Cırık, S., 2018).
With over 2,000 fishing ports and fisheries located in Japan, that is potentially 2,000 new biodiverse ecosystems that could come into existence in less than a year if enacted quickly and nationally (OECD, 2021). It is estimated that currently roughly only 145,000 people in Japan work in some aspect of the fishing industry, a significantly small number compared to the 125 million who live in Japan (Klein, C., 2021). A fraction of a fraction, and yet the fishing industry is one of the greatest revenues for the Japanese economy. This number has steadily been declining in the last few decades since the global fish stock collapse. Whereas before throughout Japan’s history a great deal of people, from grandfather to fathers to sons to grandmothers to mothers to daughters (though predominately male for most of Japan’s history), have been involved in fishing and oceanic activities. Imagine what a significant resurgence in jobs in the marine fishery and aquaculture industry would mean in Japanese culture, giving older generations and newer ones a new way of bonding with one another, and creating a further sense of kinship.
According to a report by the World Bank, farming seaweeds alone in less than 5% of U.S. waters could absorb 10 million tonnes of nitrogen and 135 million tonnes of carbon without requiring additional inputs (World Bank, 2016). Also, according to the World Bank, in the same report, the world will need to produce 50-70% more food by 2050 to feed the world’s growing populations, and by increasing the growth of seaweed alone to 14% would cover 10% of that much needed food production (World Bank, 2016). Now imagine adding in shellfish, lower trophic levels of fish, and seaweed to the already existing fisheries. Not only would you have healthier and bigger fish, but a significant increase in overall food production and deacidification of these oceanic areas, which would continuously filter out into our oceans as a whole through natural currents, with each IMTA farm acting as “one giant filtering sponge” for our oceans.
With the exception of dolphin and whale hunting, Japan should not have to stop being Japan. The water and the life that inhabits it are integral to the Japanese people’s way of life for the entirety of its nation’s history. Through this new avenue, Japan, and subsequently the United States, could usher in a new way of living with our oceans, where rather than just take as we always have, we begin to give back, and become one with nature, an environmentalist attitude long espoused in Japan for hundreds of years, and a more recent trend in the last century in the United States. The United States and Japan can form an oceanic partnership, dedicated to restoring our oceans and feeding the world and its own peoples, in much the same way Japan and the United States have enjoyed a close cultural partnership in many things since the early since WWII.
Anthropologically speaking, this new way forward allows the peoples of the Japan to maintain who they are and their primary exports that fuel their nation without losing them to global fish stock collapse. The United States, while always being a melting pot, is used to having to adapt and change many things, and while Japan is no stranger to adaptation, they historically have had much more solidarity as a “nation of the sea” for its entire history. Ethically speaking as a whole, this solution would be a huge boon to public health with seafood consumption, not just nationally for Japan and the United States, but globally, as much of the world’s seafood consumption comes from the Pacific Ocean. It also allows for a significant increased value of resource management for both countries, increasing overall exports and resources at their disposal. In an age of oceanic and overall climate disaster, Japan and the United States can hold hands and lead the world forward in innovation and ecological harmony, as the two have in other issues in the past many times before.
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